Seebeck effect: temperature gradient drives electric current — heat → electricity
Seebeck Effect: A temperature difference ΔT across a thermoelectric material generates a voltage V = α·ΔT (α = Seebeck coefficient, ~200 μV/K for Bi₂Te₃). The
figure of merit ZT = α²σT/κ governs efficiency — σ electrical conductivity, κ thermal conductivity. Best commercial materials reach ZT ≈ 1. Maximum efficiency: η = η_Carnot × (√(1+ZT)−1)/(√(1+ZT)+T_c/T_h). At ZT→∞, η → η_Carnot. ZT bar shows material quality (max realistic ≈ 3).