ODEs:
dV₁/dt = r₁V₁ − a₁₂V₁V₂ |
dV₂/dt = e₁a₁₂V₁V₂ − a₂₃V₂V₃ − d₂V₂ |
dV₃/dt = e₂a₂₃V₂V₃ − d₃V₃
The phase portrait (right) shows the 3D trajectory projected onto herbivore–predator axes, tracing quasi-periodic or chaotic orbits.
Cascading trophic control means removing the predator can cause herbivore explosions and plant collapse — a trophic cascade.