Resilience Indicators
State:-
dX/dt at X*:-
Recovery rate λ:-
Variance (SD):-
Carpenter et al. (1999):
dX/dt = P − qX + rX^h/(X^h + K^h)
Critical slowing down: Near a tipping point, recovery from perturbations slows — variance and autocorrelation rise.
Scheffer et al. (2009): Generic early warning signals for catastrophic shifts in ecosystems.