Mineral chemistry of Paleolithic art — ochre, manganese, charcoal
Paleolithic artists used mineral pigments ground from iron oxides (ochres), manganese dioxide, and charcoal, sometimes mixed with animal fat or cave water as binder. Red ochre (hematite, Fe₂O₃) was heated to convert yellow goethite (FeOOH) to deeper reds — evidence of deliberate chemistry 100,000+ years ago. The durability of these pigments explains their survival: iron oxides resist microbial degradation and UV damage, preserving images in Chauvet, Lascaux, and Altamira for tens of millennia.